5. Beyond fragmented hegemonies: A critical feminist vision for transformative democracy

Abstract

This chapter provides a critical feminist insight into the specific challenges and vulnerabilities experienced by women and marginalized groups within fractured political landscapes. Examining the concept of Pygmalion Democracy and its impact on the Global South, the chapter highlights Western tendencies to view democratization efforts in a paternalistic manner, potentially reinforcing harmful dynamics. In addition, white women may unintentionally perpetuate this by supporting interventions without acknowledging the agency of local populations, thereby undermining genuine democratic growth. Moving towards true solidarity requires recognizing intersectionality, understanding how race, class, and gender intertwine. Dismantling white-centric narratives and amplifying voices from the Global South are deemed essential in decolonizing feminist practices. Actively challenging biases and dismantling systems of white supremacy is necessary for progress.  In conclusion, the chapter acknowledges the complexity of the relationship and stresses the importance of recognizing historical baggage, understanding the potential and limitations of solidarity, and critically examining issues of class and power. The call is for active listening, centering marginalized voices, engaging in self-reflection, and dismantling oppressive systems to pave the way for a more just and equitable future. The work extends beyond critique, providing insight into the potential of a transformative democracy that challenges exceptionalism and serves the needs of all citizens.

Keywords: feminist insights, marginalized groups, fragmented hegemonies, decolonizing feminist practices and biases, White supremacy, Pygmalion democracy, women, Transformative democracy.

Résumé

Ce chapitre apporte un éclairage féministe critique sur les défis et les vulnérabilités spécifiques rencontrés par les femmes et les groupes marginalisés dans des paysages politiques fracturés. En examinant le concept de démocratie Pygmalion et son impact sur le Sud, le chapitre met en évidence les tendances occidentales à considérer les efforts de démocratisation d’une manière paternaliste, ce qui risque de renforcer les dynamiques néfastes. En outre, les femmes blanches peuvent involontairement perpétuer ce phénomène en soutenant des interventions sans reconnaître l’action des populations locales, ce qui nuit à une véritable croissance démocratique. Pour parvenir à une véritable solidarité, il faut reconnaître l’intersectionnalité, c’est-à-dire comprendre comment la race, la classe et le genre s’entremêlent. Le démantèlement des récits centrés sur les Blancs et l’amplification des voix du Sud sont considérés comme essentiels à la décolonisation des pratiques féministes. Pour progresser, il est nécessaire de remettre activement en question les préjugés et de démanteler les systèmes de suprématie blanche. En conclusion, le chapitre reconnaît la complexité de la relation et souligne l’importance de reconnaître le bagage historique, de comprendre le potentiel et les limites de la solidarité et d’examiner de manière critique les questions de classe et de pouvoir. L’appel est à l’écoute active, au centrage des voix marginalisées, à l’auto-réflexion et au démantèlement des systèmes oppressifs afin d’ouvrir la voie à un avenir plus juste et équitable. Le travail va au-delà de la critique, en donnant un aperçu du potentiel d’une démocratie transformatrice qui remet en question l’exceptionnalisme et répond aux besoins de toutes les personnes citoyennes.

Mots-clés : perspectives féministes, groupes marginalisés, hégémonies fragmentées, décolonisation des pratiques et des préjugés féministes, suprématie blanche, démocratie Pygmalion, femmes, démocratie transformatrice.

Resumen

Este capítulo ofrece una perspectiva feminista crítica sobre los desafíos y vulnerabilidades específicos que enfrentan las mujeres y los grupos marginados dentro de paisajes políticos fragmentados. Al examinar el concepto de Democracia Pigmaliónica y su impacto en el Sur Global, el capítulo resalta las tendencias occidentales de ver los esfuerzos de democratización de manera paternalista, lo que podría reforzar dinámicas perjudiciales. Además, las mujeres blancas pueden perpetuar esto de manera no intencional al apoyar intervenciones sin reconocer la agencia de las poblaciones locales, socavando así el crecimiento genuino de la democracia. Avanzar hacia una verdadera solidaridad requiere reconocer la interseccionalidad, entendiendo cómo la raza, la clase y el género se entrelazan. Desmantelar las narrativas centradas en lo blanco y amplificar las voces del Sur Global se considera esencial en la descolonización de las prácticas feministas. Desafiar activamente los prejuicios y desmantelar los sistemas de supremacía blanca es necesario para el progreso. En conclusión, el capítulo reconoce la complejidad de la relación y subraya la importancia de reconocer el lastre histórico, comprender el potencial y las limitaciones de la solidaridad, y examinar críticamente los problemas de clase y poder. El llamado es a la escucha activa, centrando las voces marginadas, participando en la autorreflexión y desmantelando los sistemas opresivos para allanar el camino hacia un futuro más justo y equitativo. El trabajo va más allá de la crítica, proporcionando una visión sobre el potencial de una democracia transformadora que desafíe el excepcionalismo y sirva a las necesidades de todos los ciudadanos.

Palabras clave: perspectivas feministas, grupos marginados, hegemonías fragmentadas, descolonización de las prácticas y prejuicios feministas, supremacía blanca, democracia pigmaliónica, mujeres, democracia transformadora.

Introduction

The concept of “Fragmented Hegemonies” (Macrine & Edling, 2022) offers a critical lens to examine the intricate power dynamics that contribute to the erosion of democracy and the exacerbation of existing inequalities. It challenges the traditional view of monolithic power structures, revealing that power is dispersed and operates in diverse ways across different contexts, creating a chaotic arena in global and national politics (Kleinfeld, 2023). This fragmentation hinders progress towards social justice and amplifies the vulnerabilities of women and marginalized groups (Brechenmacher & Mann, 2024).

The current global political landscape is marked by deep divisions and polarization, evident in intense partisan animosity, policy gridlock, rising political violence, and the erosion of democratic norms (Giroux & DiMaggio, 2024; Macrine & Edling, 2021). This polarization, fueled by factors such as the rise of nationalism, shifting demographics, geographic sorting, economic inequality, and media influences, not only threatens the stability of democracies worldwide but also perpetuates existing power imbalances (Kleinfeld, 2023). Within these fractured systems, patriarchal and colonial legacies persist, disproportionately silencing marginalized voices.

Furthermore, systemic racism, gender inequity, and the ongoing refugee crisis exacerbate these divisions, often leading to discriminatory policies and xenophobic rhetoric (Mooten, 2021). While strides have been made in women’s representation, particularly among white women, this progress often reinforces existing hierarchies, benefiting those with greater social and economic privilege rather than fostering systemic change (Abulbasal et al., 2023). Minority women and those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds continue to face significant barriers to equal participation, highlighting the need for a more inclusive and equitable political landscape that addresses these interconnected challenges (World Bank Group, 2022).

The rise of populist and far-right movements further exploits these divisions, strategically manipulating issues of race, gender, religion, and nationality to sow discord and distract from the root causes of inequality (Brechenmacher & Mann, 2024). By scapegoating minority groups and immigrants, these movements deflect blame away from those in power and fracture potential alliances among the marginalized.

Moreover, austerity measures implemented under the guise of economic necessity exacerbate these inequalities by disproportionately harming women, low-income communities, and people of color (Georgieva, 2022). Cuts to essential public services such as healthcare, education, and social welfare programs leave these groups increasingly vulnerable to exploitation, deprivation, and violence. This not only impacts their immediate well-being but also hinders their ability to advocate for their rights and participate fully in society (OECD, 2019; Torfs et al., 2021).

Women, especially those at the intersections of race, class, national origin, and sexuality, are particularly vulnerable to the negative impacts of austerity. They experience higher rates of gender-based violence, limited access to basic resources, and further marginalization within decision-making spaces. The cumulative effect is a widening gap between those who benefit from the system and those it systematically oppresses, creating an increasingly unjust and unsustainable world.

The path towards equality and justice is further hindered by complex and deeply entrenched systems of oppression that disproportionately affect individuals who experience multiple forms of oppression. Kimberlé Crenshaw’s (1991) intersectional framework provides a critical lens for understanding the complex ways in which power operates and how various social identities and systems of oppression intersect to shape lived experiences of individuals. It moves beyond single-axis analyses of discrimination based on race, class, gender, sexuality, or migrant status, recognizing that these categories do not exist in isolation. Instead, they intersect and overlap, creating unique and compounded experiences of disadvantage.

This chapter highlights the critical need to confront the complex threats to democracy and gender equality. It stresses the importance of dismantling harmful narratives based on race, privilege, and bias while empowering marginalized voices, particularly those from the Global South. The chapter argues that by adopting an intersectional feminist approach and fostering strong transnational alliances, we can champion inclusive systems that tackle the root causes of inequality. This analysis advocates for a transformative change amidst shifting power structures, ultimately leading us toward a more just and equitable future.

Pygmalion democracy: Western interventionism and fractured hegemonies

At the core of this discussion lies the idea of “Pygmalion Democracy,” developed by Paul R. Carr in collaboration with Gina Thésée and Eloy Rivas-Sanchez. Inspired by the Greek myth of a sculptor who falls in love with his own creation, it addresses the manipulation of normative forms of democracy to coerce people into believing they are participating in a functioning democracy when they may not be.

In a Pygmalion system of democracy, powerful entities, often Western nations, set low expectations for certain groups or nations they intervene in, creating a self-fulfilling prophecy that justifies continued external control and influence. By projecting their own standards and expectations, these powerful entities inadvertently shape the development trajectories of the regions they intervene in, often to the detriment of local autonomy and progress (Killen et al., 2021). In a Pygmalion society, these threats are exemplified in a concentrated form, where the creator’s absolute power over their creation mirrors that of a dictator, extinguishing individual rights and freedoms. This normalizes the idea that some people are disposable tools for the benefit of others, a mindset directly opposed to a functioning democracy (Khalil, 2021). Women and minorities, historically targets of exploitation within patriarchal systems, are particularly at risk in such a society (Kaufman, 2023).

This type of Western interventionism, driven by various motives—political, economic, ideological—often manifests as military interventions, economic sanctions, or regime change efforts (Alam & Alam, 2014). Even when well-intentioned, these interventions can exacerbate existing power imbalances and fuel resentment among the local populace. For example, the imposition of Western-style democracies can lead to instability and conflict, as the imported Pygmalion systems may clash with local contexts, indigenous governance traditions, and cultural norms.

As a result, the combination of Western Interventionism and Pygmalion Democracy often results in fractured hegemonies. Instead of fostering stable, democratic states, these actions can lead to several detrimental outcomes. These might include but are not limited to: power vacuums caused by the removal of existing regimes can create power vacuums that are filled by competing factions, warlords, or extremist groups, leading to further instability and conflict (Pedigo, 2016). In addition, the perception of Western intervention as neo-colonialism fuels resentment and resistance, leading to the rise of anti-Western movements and ideologies (Ma, 2023). Indeed, such imposed democratic systems lead to weak institutions that are vulnerable to corruption and exploitation (Jackson, 2022).

The breakdown of established power structures or hegemonies creates a self-fulfilling prophecy of instability and underdevelopment (Alam & Alam, 2014). Western powers, witnessing this turmoil and perceived stagnation, may escalate their interventions, further diminishing local autonomy and exacerbating existing conflicts. This creates a vicious cycle where local populations are trapped between external control and internal strife, perpetuating a state of dependency and instability (Jackson, 2022).

Ultimately, the interplay between fragmented hegemonies and the imposition of Pygmalion democracy creates a persistent cycle of social and economic disadvantage for women and minorities, highlighting the urgent need for inclusive leadership, equal opportunities, and empowerment initiatives to dismantle these oppressive structures and build a more equitable society (Alam & Alam, 2014). The intersection of these two phenomena creates a system where women and minorities are consistently overlooked and underestimated. This results in limited access to essential resources and opportunities, such as education, employment, and healthcare, further hindering their social and economic advancement.^[1]

Moreover, the constant exposure to low expectations and negative stereotypes can lead to internalized oppression, where individuals begin to believe limiting narratives about their own potential and worth, making it even more difficult to challenge the status quo (Willis et al., 2021). The division of power not only makes it difficult for women and minorities to influence political decisions, but it also leads to policies that ignore their needs and maintain inequality. Additionally, the harmful belief in the inferiority of certain groups undermines democracy by stripping individuals of their independence and ability to act for themselves.

Western powers often use a distorted Pygmalion concept to impose their values on developing nations under the guise of promoting democracy. This is achieved through economic manipulation, military intervention, and cultural imperialism, mirroring power dynamics in a Pygmalion society where institutions are controlled to maintain inequality. This leads to a dependent nation with undermined agency, resulting in a distorted democracy that serves Western interests and perpetuates neocolonialism, hindering genuine democratic development.

The rise of nationalism and its dark consequences

The global resurgence of nationalism, marked by a heightened emphasis on national identity and pride, has coincided with the alarming rise of the alt-right (Daniels, 2018; Neiwert, 2017). This movement, deeply rooted in white nationalist and far-right ideologies, further complicates an already intricate global political landscape (Edling & Macrine, 2021). The interconnected nature of these phenomena poses a significant threat to democratic values and social cohesion on a global scale (Giroux, 2019).

Nationalism, in its most extreme form, promotes an exclusionary and xenophobic understanding of national identity, constructing a narrow definition of belonging based on factors such as race, ethnicity, or religion (Giroux, 2019). This exclusionary narrative seeks to marginalize or exclude those who do not fit this idealized image (Reyna et al., 2022). The alt-right movement, with its deep roots in white nationalist and far-right ideologies, has capitalized on these exclusionary narratives, finding fertile ground in the current climate of heightened nationalism (Neiwert, 2017).

Exploiting populist rhetoric and online platforms, the alt-right disseminates messages of hate, division, and white supremacy, preying on the fears and anxieties of those who feel threatened by the perceived erosion of traditional values and demographics (Giroux & DiMaggio, 2024). Their rejection of multiculturalism and immigration further fuels this divisive trend, advocating for policies that prioritize the interests of a perceived white majority, often at the expense of minority groups and immigrants (Neiwert, 2017). This not only undermines the principles of diversity and inclusivity that are fundamental to democratic societies but also actively erodes the social fabric of communities and nations (Giroux & DiMaggio, 2024).

The alt-right’s exploitation of nationalist sentiments to promote an agenda of discrimination and exclusion poses a significant threat to human rights, social cohesion, and the overall well-being of diverse populations (Daniels, 2018). It is crucial to recognize and counter these dangerous narratives, promoting inclusive and equitable societies that value the contributions and rights of all individuals, regardless of their background.

Furthermore, the alt-right’s influence extends beyond mere rhetoric and online activism. They have increasingly infiltrated mainstream political discourse and mobilized support for policies that restrict immigration, limit the rights of minority groups, and undermine democratic institutions (Reyna et al., 2022). This erosion of democratic norms and values not only threatens the stability of individual nations but also has broader implications for international cooperation and global security.

The rise of nationalism and the emergence of the alt-right movement represent a dangerous convergence of forces that threaten to undermine democratic values and exacerbate social divisions (Neiwert, 2017). The alt-right’s exploitation of nationalist anxieties to promote an exclusionary and discriminatory agenda poses a significant threat to human rights, social cohesion, and the overall well-being of diverse populations. To counter this threat, it is crucial to reaffirm the principles of inclusivity, diversity, and equality that underpin democratic societies. This requires not only challenging the hateful rhetoric and divisive tactics of the alt-right but also addressing the underlying socio-economic factors that fuel nationalist sentiment and create fertile ground for extremist ideologies to take root (Daniels, 2018; Reyna et al., 2022).

Shattered safety nets, shifting power: The rise of female political extremists

The erosion of social safety nets, vital lifelines for individuals and families facing economic hardship, is a dire consequence of the fragmentation of political power. As ideological and economic pressures intensify, programs such as unemployment benefits, food assistance, and healthcare are increasingly under threat (Cinelli et al., 2021). This erosion disproportionately harms women, who are often burdened with caregiving responsibilities and limited economic opportunities. In a system where marginalized groups, particularly women and minorities, are systematically undervalued, the loss of these safety nets is devastating (Masferrer, 2023). It exacerbates existing inequalities, pushing these groups further into poverty and perpetuating cycles of disadvantage.

This dismantling of social safety nets is not accidental. The rise of nationalist sentiment, often accompanied by xenophobia and a focus on prioritizing the needs of the perceived in-group, can lead to policies that erode social safety nets in favor of policies that benefit the dominant group.

Political powers, through manipulative tactics and misleading narratives, often blame individuals for their poverty, promoting an ethos of individualism that masks systemic injustices (Cinelli et al., 2021). This discourse serves to maintain the status quo and deflect attention from the need for substantial reform. The consequences of this erosion are severe, including increased poverty, homelessness, and untreated health problems, which strain the social fabric and undermine the potential of countless individuals (Cinelli et al., 2021). Women, who are more likely to rely on these programs for support, are particularly vulnerable.

In addition, the disturbing rise of far-right nationalism has profound implications for gender equality and societal well-being, extending far beyond political movements. Far-right parties in various countries strategically elevate female leaders to mask their true objectives of perpetuating patriarchal power structures and promoting nationalist agendas (Edling & Macrine, 2021; Ludwig, 2021). This cynical tactic involves co-opting feminist language to advance policies that marginalize migrants, people of color, and the transgender community, ultimately fueling violence rooted in misogyny, racism, and classism (Leidig, 2023). The result is a dangerous and divisive environment that further jeopardizes the rights and safety of marginalized groups.

This deceptive elevation of female leaders within far-right movements serves to obscure their fundamental commitment to maintaining patriarchal power and advancing nationalist ideologies (Edling & Macrine, 2021; Ljungquist, 2021). By co-opting feminist rhetoric, these movements can manipulate public perception and gain support while simultaneously undermining the feminist movement’s core values of equality and inclusivity. They weaponize this language to vilify and exclude groups deemed as threats to the nation, perpetuating harmful stereotypes and inciting violence against marginalized communities.

The phenomenon of far-right female extremism and leadership in Europe is a growing concern, prompting a deeper examination of how these movements frame reality and influence political discourse (Heinemann & Stern, 2022). The alt-right’s misogyny presents a paradox: while women who effectively promote their hateful ideology may gain recognition, they also face hostility from both within and outside their ranks (Llanera, 2023). This highlights the inherent contradiction within the movement, where women are simultaneously exploited for their ability to advance the cause while remaining subject to the misogynistic beliefs that underpin it.

Recent studies across Europe reveal a troubling trend of increasing support among women for far-right parties like Generation Identity and Alternative für Deutschland (AfD) (Campion, 2020; Leidig, 2023). This narrowing gender gap, with more women actively participating as followers, members, and leaders, underscores the need to investigate the factors driving this phenomenon. Understanding how female leaders within these movements engage with both male and female citizens is crucial to comprehending the broader implications of this trend.

The ramifications of these developments are far-reaching and deeply harmful. They exacerbate societal polarization, making constructive dialogue and compromise increasingly difficult as differing viewpoints become more entrenched (McCoy & Somer, 2019). Furthermore, they perpetuate the oppression of women and minorities by reinforcing harmful stereotypes, eroding their representation in public discourse, and marginalizing their voices. Nationalist rhetoric, amplified by both traditional and social media, can be used to justify violence and aggression against marginalized groups, escalating the risk of conflict and further entrenching systems of oppression (Kleinfeld, 2023).

Nationalism, misogyny, media & gaming

Nationalism is a powerful force shaping global dynamics, with profound influences on media and social media spheres. Traditional outlets like news channels and newspapers often become tools for amplifying nationalist narratives, selectively reporting stories that bolster national pride or paint other nations negatively. This framing evokes strong patriotic or fear-inducing emotions, while marginalizing diverse perspectives and perpetuating systems of oppression (Susánszky et al., 2022).

Social media platforms present their own challenges. Algorithms create echo chambers, isolating users from dissenting viewpoints and further marginalizing women and minorities (Cinelli et al., 2021). Nationalist groups exploit these platforms to spread disinformation and propaganda, deepening societal divisions. Hashtags, memes, and online movements rapidly mobilize nationalist sentiment, often targeting marginalized groups and fostering an “us vs. them” mentality that entrenches oppressive systems (McCoy & Somer, 2023).

Interestingly, the recent resurgence of nationalism extends to seemingly unrelated spheres like video game culture (He, 2023), where a stronger focus on national identity sometimes prioritizes one’s country to the detriment of others. In gaming, this can manifest in troubling ways. As He (2023) observes, some gamers utilize nationalistic sentiment to justify criticism of female characters they find inappropriate for their idealized national identity. Disguising their discomfort with strong female figures as complaints against “forced diversity,” they employ a form of gender-equal sexism (He, 2024).

This seemingly neutral stance on character design reinforces traditional gender roles and restrictions, demonstrating how misogynistic views can be veiled by seemingly objective arguments, ultimately influencing gaming culture and limiting female representation (Nguyen, 2023). Nationalistic sentiment within gaming promotes harmful stereotypes, romanticizing traditional values and a distorted version of the past (He, 2023). As a result, focusing on upholding a perceived national identity can become a tool to control women’s bodies and how they are portrayed in games, perpetuating harmful sexist attitudes.

This criticism extends beyond fair representation, aimed at women’s bodies. Claiming portrayals go against national values, these game designers and gamers frame their sexism as patriotism while simultaneously implying women who do not fit their traditional mold are somehow “lesser” citizens. This aligns with gender-equal sexism (Anti-Defamation League Report, 2018), where harmful ideas are cloaked in objectivity. Arguments about strong female characters being “unrealistic” deny complex female realities and reduce them to stereotypes.

Crucially, gender stereotypes function as mechanisms of oppression, limiting individuals by slotting them into pre-determined roles based on sex. Historically, this meant women were confined to roles as caregivers, damsels, or sexual objects (Bermúdez Figueroa, et al., 2023). Media and gaming recycle these tropes endlessly. They do not merely reflect bias; they actively reinforce it, shaping expectations and hindering women in very real ways. Ultimately, this toxic blend of nationalism and sexism aims to maintain control.

To counter these destructive forces, it is imperative to foster critical thinking and media literacy skills, particularly among marginalized communities. By fact-checking information, recognizing media bias, and actively seeking out diverse perspectives, individuals can resist the manipulative narratives propagated by nationalist ideologies. Empowering marginalized voices within media and social media spaces is essential for challenging these systems of oppression and promoting understanding and unity amidst global diversity. Cultivating a culture of informed discussion that amplifies the voices of women and minorities is crucial to combating the detrimental impact of far-right nationalism on gender equality and social cohesion.

Challenging Western feminism’s colonial legacy: A call for intersectionality and solidarity

Feminist scholar Chandra Mohanty (1988) critiques Western feminists’ portrayal of women in the Global South, challenging the concept of a one-size-fits-all approach. In her 1988 influential essay “Under Western Eyes,” Mohanty critiques the homogenization of women under the label of “third-world women,” arguing that this categorization not only simplifies and essentializes their diverse experiences and struggles but also obscures the complex interplay of factors like gender, class, race, and geography that shape their unique realities. Ultimately, Mohanty (1988) contends that, in constructing a monolithic narrative of victimhood and powerlessness, it unintentionally upholds a colonial discourse that further marginalizes and silences women in the Global South.

This phenomenon operates through various mechanisms, including the reduction of “Third World Women” to a singular, oppressed archetype, which erases their diverse realities and agency. Moreover, the imposition of an ethnocentric, Western-centric standard of womanhood distorts and devalues the lived experiences of women in the Global South (Nagar et al., 2002). The asymmetry in knowledge production reinforces this colonial relationship, where Western feminist scholars often occupy authoritative positions, while women from the Global South are relegated to the status of passive subjects of study. This dynamic not only disregards the agency and resilience of Southern women but also risks perpetuating stereotypes and justifying Western intervention under the guise of benevolence. Ultimately, by perpetuating these problematic representations and analyses, Western feminists may inadvertently bolster colonial power structures that perpetuate the marginalization and exploitation of women in the Global South (Mohanty, 1988, 2013).

The literature on Whiteness reveals a complex history of complicity and exclusion within feminist movements (Muñoz-Puig, 2024). White feminists, while advocating for women’s rights, often failed to fully address the unique experiences and challenges faced by women of color. Peggy McIntosh’s seminal 1989 essay, “White Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack,” serves as a stark reminder of this phenomenon. McIntosh (1989) highlights the unearned advantages and privileges that white individuals possess, often unknowingly, due to their race. This concept of white privilege intersects with gender, creating a dynamic where white women, while facing sexism, also benefit from their racial privilege, often at the expense of women of color. This lack of intersectional understanding within mainstream feminism has historically led to the exclusion of women of color’s voices and concerns, perpetuating a system where white women’s experiences are centered while others are marginalized. Furthermore, the global dominance of the United States, both culturally and politically, has often reinforced Western feminist ideals as the norm, further marginalizing the perspectives and struggles of women in other parts of the world. This complex interplay of race, gender, and global power dynamics underscores the need for a more inclusive and intersectional approach to feminism that recognizes the diverse experiences of women worldwide.

This silences the rich bricolage of voices and agency of women in the South and ultimately misrepresents their struggles. It even reinforces the very power imbalances Western feminism seeks to dismantle. Mohanty (2021) emphasizes this point, highlighting the need for self-reflection, particularly for white women engaged in international solidarity work, and being especially aware of the power dynamics at play to avoid replicating colonial patterns.

Without careful introspection and a willingness to shift from savior to ally, we risk replicating the very dynamics of oppression we claim to challenge (Muñoz-Puig, 2024). It is imperative to recognize that well-meaning actions can inadvertently reinforce existing power structures and perpetuate the marginalization of the communities we seek to support. By interrogating our own biases and privileges, we can begin to dismantle the paternalistic attitudes that underpin Pygmalion democracies. This requires humility, active listening, and a commitment to centering the voices and agency of those directly impacted by our interventions.

Furthermore, according to Patricia Hill Collins and colleagues (2021), a genuine partnership approach that prioritizes mutual respect and collaboration is essential in fostering meaningful change. Rather than imposing preconceived notions of democracy and development, we must work alongside local actors to co-create solutions that are contextually relevant and sustainable. Ultimately, the transformation of Pygmalion democracies requires a paradigm shift in how we conceptualize solidarity and allyship. It demands a willingness to relinquish control and privilege and to recognize that true empowerment comes not from charity but from amplifying and supporting the inherent strengths and resilience of marginalized communities.

Gender-based violence: A global epidemic

Oppression, often disguised as the norm, permeates societal structures, perpetuating injustice through its invisibility (Foucault, 1988). Deconstructing these ingrained patriarchal norms, racist biases, and other harmful ideologies is crucial for dismantling oppressive systems and achieving true equality. By critically analyzing language, institutions, cultural practices, and even our own thought processes, we can expose the subtle ways in which power structures operate and perpetuate inequality.

The evolution of terminology surrounding sexual violence, from the vague “bad things happen to women” to the explicit “rape culture,” exemplifies the power of deconstruction in revealing systemic issues and mobilizing resistance (Benn, 2020). Similarly, analyzing media representations through the lens of “the male gaze” (Mulvey, 1975) uncovers the routine objectification of women, highlighting how visual culture reinforces gender inequality. These shifts in language and analysis raise awareness, foster dialogue, and inspire action towards dismantling oppressive systems.

Gender-based violence (GBV) is a global epidemic that not only reinforces the subordination of women and non-binary individuals but also threatens democratic principles (Zamfir, 2024). It disproportionately affects marginalized groups, silencing their voices and hindering their political participation (Bardall et al., 2020). The alarming rate of femicide – with nearly 89,000 women and girls intentionally killed in 2022 alone (UNODC, 2023) – underscores the urgency of addressing this pervasive issue. GBV is particularly devastating in conflict and refugee contexts, exacerbating existing vulnerabilities and hindering access to essential services (Macrine & Edling, 2021; Tappis, 2016).

Addressing GBV requires a multifaceted approach encompassing global action, increased investment in prevention, strengthened institutions, and improved data collection. Governments, international organizations, and civil society must collaborate to end impunity for perpetrators, provide comprehensive support to survivors, and dismantle the systemic inequalities that perpetuate this violence. This includes challenging harmful gender norms and stereotypes, promoting education and awareness, and empowering women and girls to assert their rights.

GBV also manifests in the political sphere, where it is often used as a deliberate tactic to maintain women’s subordination (Zamfir, 2024). This is evident in countries like Mexico, where women in politics face high levels of violence despite legal protections. This targeted violence not only violates women’s fundamental rights but also undermines the democratic ideal of equal representation.

The pervasive and multifaceted nature of GBV, affecting an estimated one in three women globally (Manuh, 2022), necessitates comprehensive and sustained efforts to prevent and address this global crisis. Investing in prevention, supporting survivors, and challenging the systems that perpetuate GBV are essential steps towards achieving gender equality, upholding human rights, and safeguarding democracy. By recognizing the interconnectedness of these issues and working collaboratively across sectors, we can create a world where all individuals are free from violence and discrimination, regardless of their gender.

However, the cyclical nature of power dynamics poses challenges in dismantling oppressive structures. Audre Lorde (2015) highlights how relying on the “master’s tools”–the systems perpetuating oppression–may only lead to superficial change, leaving underlying biases intact. While naming and exposing oppressive structures is crucial, lasting change requires further research, advocacy, and collective action to transform deeply ingrained systems.

The voices from the margins: Indigenous and refugee women’s experiences

Indigenous women around the world occupy a uniquely vulnerable position due to the intersection of multiple systems of oppression. They contend not only with gender-based discrimination but also with the legacy of colonialism, systemic racism, and the marginalization of indigenous cultures. Scholars like Mohanty (2021) and Crenshaw (1991) highlight how these overlapping forms of oppression create specific experiences for marginalized women, rendering them invisible within dominant narratives and hindering a holistic understanding of their struggles.

As Valdecir Nascimento^[2] emphasizes the critical importance of centering Black women as architects of their own liberation movements. It’s essential to listen to and amplify these voices to ensure their self-determined paths to freedom. The experiences of indigenous women like Sonia Maribel Sontay Herrera,^[3] an indigenous Guatemalan woman, poignantly illustrate the enduring ramifications of colonialism and discrimination. Her simple act of wearing indigenous clothing is met with resistance, highlighting the daily battles indigenous women face in affirming their identities and defying imposed cultural norms. Social and environmental crises also disproportionately affect marginalized communities, including indigenous women. Majandra Rodriguez Acha,^[4] a Peruvian climate justice advocate, underscores how poverty, race, gender, and other factors increase their vulnerability to natural disasters.

Similarly, women refugees face multifaceted challenges, often stemming from gender discrimination and systemic oppression. Despite international protections, their unique vulnerabilities are often overlooked, leaving them at risk of gender-based violence, exploitation, and trafficking (Macrine & Edling, 2021). While they actively seek to change their circumstances, inadequate support and systemic barriers hinder their efforts. Gender-based violence, including rape, forced marriage, and human trafficking, permeates their experiences, reflecting deeply ingrained patriarchal structures.

Their journeys are fraught with danger, further compounded by a lack of access to essential resources and support. Even in host countries, they encounter inadequate systems, language barriers, and discrimination. The refugee crisis has been exploited for political gain in many countries, perpetuating fear and dehumanization, particularly of women and Muslim refugees (Szaflarski & Bauldry, 2019). The omission of a feminist perspective in policy responses further marginalizes these women.

The global refugee crisis, exacerbated by its politicization and the fueling of xenophobic narratives [i], disproportionately affects marginalized groups, particularly women and Muslim refugees. The lack of a feminist perspective in policymaking further marginalizes these groups, highlighting the broader societal struggles within Western countries grappling with the impacts of neoliberal globalization (Szaflarski & Bauldry, 2019). As anti-refugee sentiments rise, refugees face heightened risks of discrimination and violence. Intersectionality, with its focus on the interconnected experiences of various marginalized groups, provides a crucial framework for understanding the complexities of the refugee crisis (Collins and Bilge, 2016, 2nd edn, 2020). While organizations like the UNHCR play a vital role, a concerted effort is needed to prioritize the unique needs of refugee women. By integrating a feminist lens, we can ensure a more comprehensive and equitable response to the refugee crisis, ultimately upholding the rights and dignity of all refugees.

To address these interconnected challenges, it’s crucial to amplify the voices of indigenous and refugee women. Organizations like the UNODC (2023) play a vital role in advocating for their rights, but a concerted effort is needed to ensure their voices are heard and their specific needs are met. By centering their experiences and perspectives, we can foster a more comprehensive understanding of these issues and work towards a more inclusive and equitable world.

Feminist theory’s intersectionality as a counterforce to Pygmalion democracy

The path towards equality and justice is hindered by complex and deeply entrenched systems of oppression that disproportionately affect individuals who experience multiple forms of discrimination. Kimberlé Crenshaw’s (1991) intersectional framework is essential to understanding how power operates and how various social identities and systems of oppression intersect to create unique experiences of disadvantage. This framework moves beyond single-axis analyses of discrimination based on race, class, gender, sexuality, or migrant status, recognizing that these categories intersect and overlap.

Crenshaw’s work exposes how traditional approaches to social justice can inadvertently render invisible the experiences of those who face multiple forms of discrimination simultaneously (1991). For instance, the distinct set of challenges faced by queer immigrant women, or women of color, are shaped by the complex interplay of their sexual orientation, nationality, race, and gender (Vargas et al., 2022). Systemic oppression exacerbates these challenges, leading to social isolation and health disparities among marginalized groups, such as Latinx LGBTQ+ youth. These experiences mirror the Pygmalion effect, where lower expectations placed upon individuals due to their intersecting identities can lead to self-fulfilling prophecies and limited opportunities.

By highlighting the importance of considering multiple, intersecting identities and systems of oppression, Crenshaw’s framework provides a more nuanced and comprehensive understanding of social inequality. This understanding allows for the development of more effective and inclusive strategies for social change that address the unique needs and challenges faced by individuals and groups who experience multiple forms of discrimination. However, traditional approaches and dominant narratives continue to fail to address the complex realities faced by those at the intersections of multiple marginalized identities. The rise of nationalist and conservative movements further threatens progress towards equality.

In response to these challenges, intersectional and transnational feminism emerge as powerful frameworks. By centering the experiences of marginalized individuals and amplifying their voices, intersectional feminism disrupts dominant narratives and exposes the structural nature of oppression (Crenshaw, 1991).

Transnational feminism, building on intersectional principles, recognizes that women’s struggles are shaped by diverse social, economic, and political contexts (Edling & Macrine, 2022; Mohanty, 2013, 2021). It fosters solidarity among diverse groups of women across borders, emphasizing the importance of understanding how gender inequality intersects with other forms of oppression.

In the face of hegemonic power structures, women’s active participation in politics and leadership roles is crucial. Transnational feminism provides a framework for this work, emphasizing collaboration, inclusivity, and recognition of diverse experiences to dismantle oppressive systems and build a more just future for all.

Discussion

This chapter examined fragmented hegemonies and the rise of Pygmalion democracies, where ruling elites manipulate and control populations, resulting in deeply entrenched systems of oppression that disproportionately affect women and other marginalized groups based on race, class, gender, sexuality, and more. To counter these forces, a transformative feminist framework for democracy has emerged, prioritizing intersectionality and challenging the status quo, aiming to create a world where all individuals are valued and empowered.

This feminist framework seeks to dismantle interlocking systems of oppression by critically examining and deconstructing biased language, texts, media, and cultural practices that perpetuate harmful stereotypes and reinforce existing power imbalances. It goes beyond mere critique, actively advocating for decentralized power structures and promoting participatory democracy that empowers marginalized communities to have a genuine voice in decision-making processes. By centering the lived experiences and perspectives of those most impacted by systemic oppression, this framework challenges dominant narratives and creates space for the development and implementation of inclusive and equitable policies and practices.

Solidarity and coalition-building across diverse social movements are not just ideals but essential strategies for dismantling fragmented and oppressive power structures. By recognizing the interconnected nature of various forms of oppression, individuals and groups can forge alliances based on shared values and goals, creating a collective force for change. Embracing transformative justice, which prioritizes healing, accountability, and community-based solutions, further shifts the focus from punitive measures to addressing the root causes of harm and creating a more just and equitable society.

Making global linkages and connections, Transnational feminism emerges as a powerful counterforce to the rising tide of conservative movements and nationalistic ideologies, often fueled by Western interventionism. By championing intersectionality and global solidarity, it fosters collaboration across borders and amplifies the voices of those silenced or marginalized by Pygmalion democracies. It offers a nuanced understanding of the complex interplay of power dynamics at both local and global levels, providing theoretical frameworks and practical strategies for collective action to resist and dismantle oppressive systems.

This framework for a transformative democracy necessitates a radical reimagining of our social, political, and economic systems, moving beyond superficial reforms and challenging the very foundations upon which they are built. It requires a steadfast commitment to dismantling the complex interplay of power dynamics that perpetuate inequality and marginalization. By embracing intersectional and transnational feminist principles, amplifying marginalized voices, and fostering collaboration across diverse communities, we can collectively pave the way for a future grounded in liberation, equality, and justice for all.

Ultimately, this discussion calls for a profound and fundamental transformation of our systems to create a world that truly values and empowers all individuals, free from violence, discrimination, and marginalization. This transformation involves not only dismantling existing structures of oppression but also envisioning and building new systems that prioritize human dignity, well-being, and collective liberation. It is a continuous and ongoing process that demands constant vigilance, critical reflection, and unwavering commitment to creating a more just and equitable world for present and future generations.

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